A Grammar of English
Overview
English, or Engelac to its speakers, is:
- head-initial
- inflecting
- predominantly SVO (though VOS is preferred in some constructions).
- an OGTRTA language.
Pronunciation and spelling
TODO
Morphology of nouns
Number
The dictionary form of almost all nouns is transnumeral, and can be used for both singular and plural senses. Plural nouns may be marked by a plural suffix -es. Singularity of indefinite nouns is optionally marked by the numeral er "one," e.g. er a gwydh "a tree."
The exceptions to transnumerality are pronouns, some of which are marked for number, and cardinal numbers, which are grammatically nouns.
Articles
English has two definite articles: ða for singular nouns, and na for plural nouns.
Genitive
The genitive singular form of a noun takes the suffix -m. The genitive case of a noun functions syntactically as a zero-valence verb.
The genitive plural suffix is -a. This replaces the nominative plural suffix.
Summary of noun morphology
| Form | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| nom. transnum. indef. | gwydh | "tree, trees, verdure" |
| nom. sing. indef. | er a gwydh | "a tree" |
| nom. plur. indef. | gwydhes | "some trees" |
| nom. sing. def. | ða gwydh | "the tree" |
| nom. plur. def. | na gwydh, na gwydhes | "the trees" |
| gen. transnum. indef. | gwydhm | "of trees, arboreal" |
| gen. sing. indef. | erm a gwydh | "of a tree" |
| gen. plur. indef. | gwydha | "of some trees" |
| gen. sing. def. | ða gwydhm | "of the tree" |
| gen. plur. def. | na gwydha | "of the trees" |
Pronouns
Nominative
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | yc | wê |
| 2nd | thû | yê |
| 3rd masc. | (3M??) | - |
| 3rd fem. | (3F??) | - |
| 3rd epicene animate | (3ANSG??) | (3ANPL??) |
| 3rd inanimate | (3INANSG??) | (3INANPL??) |
Possessive
Syntactically, these "pronouns" are actually zero-valence verbs.
- 3MSG, 3FSG, 3EPSG 3ANPL
- 3INANSG, 3INANPL
Morphology of verbs
There are two main morphological classes of verbs: short-stem and long-stem verbs. Long-stem verbs have dictionary forms ending in -(i)el, -(i)en, -(i)eth, or -(i)ol. Short-stem verbs lack any such ending.
The dictionary form of a verb is the active participle.
| Form | Short-stem (qelda "green") | Long-stem (melien "loving") |
|---|---|---|
| act. part. | qelda "green" | melien "loving" |
| prog. act. part. | qeldada "being green" | melienda "(currently) loving" |
| perf. act. part. | qeldava "having been green" | melienwa "having loved" |
| fut. act. part. | qeldanor "about to be green" | meliennor "about to love" |
| Form | Short-stem (ga-gelda "making green") | Long-stem (melien "loving") |
|---|---|---|
| pass. part. | ga-geldant "greenified" | melenynt "beloved" |